The tree peony (牡丹, mǔdān, Paeonia suffruticosa) reigns supreme as the 'King of Flowers' (花王, Huā Wáng) in Chinese culture, a title it has held since the Tang Dynasty (618–907). Native to the mountainous regions of western China — particularly the Qinling Mountains of Shaanxi Province — the wild tree peony was first brought into cultivation during the Southern and Northern Dynasties period (420–589). Initially valued for its medicinal root bark (牡丹皮, mǔdān pí), which was used to cool the blood and reduce inflammation in Traditional Chinese Medicine, the peony's spectacular blooms soon captured the imagination of the imperial court. By the reign of Empress Wu Zetian (r. 690–705), the only female emperor in Chinese history, the peony had become the undisputed flower of the imperial gardens — and a legend was born that would cement its status in the Chinese imagination for the next 1,300 years.

Empress Wu Zetian and the Peony's Defiance

The most famous story about the Chinese peony involves Empress Wu Zetian and an imperial decree. One winter day, as the legend goes, the Empress wrote a poem commanding all the flowers in her garden to bloom overnight in her honor. The next morning, every flower had obeyed — except the peony, which stubbornly refused to bloom out of season. Enraged, Wu Zetian ordered all peonies banished from the capital of Chang'an (modern Xi'an) to the distant city of Luoyang. But the peonies thrived in Luoyang's climate, producing blooms even more magnificent than before. Whether or not this story has any historical basis, it captures the Chinese perception of the peony's character: proud, unbending, and magnificent. Luoyang did indeed become China's peony capital, and to this day the Luoyang Peony Festival (洛阳牡丹花会), held every April since 1983, is the largest peony exhibition in the world, drawing millions of visitors to admire over 1,200 varieties blooming across the city's parks and gardens.

The Peony in Tang Dynasty Culture

The Tang Dynasty represented the golden age of peony culture in China. The great poet Li Bai (701–762), summoned to the imperial court to compose verses in honor of the peonies blooming in the沉香亭 (Chénxiāng Tíng, Pavilion of Aloeswood), produced his famous 'Qing Ping Diao' (清平调) poems, comparing the beauty of the peony — and by extension, the imperial consort Yang Guifei — to clouds and flowers, the most ethereal of all earthly beauties. During the Tang period, a single prized peony plant could cost as much as a commoner's house, and the flower became so associated with wealth and status that the phrase 'wealth and honor' (富贵, fùguì) became practically synonymous with the peony itself. Peony-viewing parties among the Tang elite were elaborate affairs: guests would compose poems on the spot, painters would capture the blooms on silk, and musicians would perform new compositions dedicated to the flowers. The Tang capital of Chang'an was said to turn into a 'city of flowers' each spring, with entire neighborhoods transformed by cascades of peony blooms.

Cultivars, Art, and the National Flower Debate

Chinese horticulturists have developed over 1,000 named cultivars of tree peony over the centuries, classified into ten major color groups and multiple flower forms. The most famous varieties include 'Yao Huang' (姚黄, Yao's Yellow), a golden-yellow peony named after a Song Dynasty family that first cultivated it, and 'Wei Zi' (魏紫, Wei's Purple), a deep purple variety that was once so valuable it was used as currency. 'Er Qiao' (二乔), named after the two legendary beauties of the Three Kingdoms era, produces flowers that are half red and half pink on the same bloom. In Chinese painting, the peony is a perennial favorite — the Qing Dynasty painter Yun Shouping (1633–1690) revolutionized flower painting with his 'boneless' (没骨, mògǔ) technique that depicted peonies without ink outlines, using pure washes of color to create flowers of extraordinary delicacy. In modern China, a long-running public debate has considered whether the peony or the plum blossom should be designated the official national flower — with the peony representing China's glorious cultural heritage and the plum blossom symbolizing the nation's resilient spirit.

Peony Symbolism in Modern China and Beyond

Today, the peony continues to be one of China's most powerful cultural symbols. It appears on everything from fine porcelain to paper currency — the 1-yuan coin features a peony on its reverse side. The peony motif is ubiquitous in Chinese weddings, embroidered onto bridal gowns and featured in decorations, as it symbolizes a happy, prosperous marriage. In feng shui (风水), peony paintings are believed to attract romantic luck and are often recommended for the bedroom of single women seeking a partner. The city of Heze in Shandong Province has emerged as a rival to Luoyang in peony cultivation, producing over 80% of China's peony exports, which now reach florists and gardens worldwide. Chinese peony oil (牡丹籽油), pressed from the seeds, was approved as a new food resource by China's National Health Commission in 2011 and has since become a luxury health product, valued for its high content of alpha-linolenic acid. The peony's journey from a wild mountain flower to a global symbol of Chinese culture is a testament to its enduring beauty and the depth of meaning it has accumulated over fifteen centuries of cultivation and veneration.